China Agricultural Economic Review,
April 21, 2026
Purpose While peer effects in education have been extensively studied in developed countries, there has been limited investigation of how physical proximity shapes academic achievement in rural educational settings. This study examines peer effects among primary school students in rural China and investigates whether these effects operate differently across student ability levels through distinct mechanisms.
Design/methodology/approach Data from 2,956 primary school students across rural counties in Shaanxi Province, China, were analyzed. We employ an instrumental variable approach using physical distance between students in classroom seating arrangements to address endogeneity in peer group formation. Study group formation is measured through student-reported study partnerships, while academic performance is assessed using standardized mathematics test scores.
Findings Study groups significantly enhance student achievement, with heterogeneous effects across ability levels. Middle tercile students show the strongest peer effects (0.318 standard deviations), compared to bottom tercile students (0.241 standard deviations). Mechanism analysis reveals that peer effects operate primarily through improved intrinsic motivation, enhanced self-concept, and reduced academic anxiety among middle-performing students, while effects for bottom tercile students operate through alternative pathways not captured in our measures.
Research limitations/implications Our findings inform cost-efficient policy interventions in both educational institutions and corporate environments. The evidence indicates that optimizing spatial proximity in peer networks represents an efficient policy instrument for human capital accumulation, particularly valuable in resource-constrained settings, as it leverages existing human capital without substantial additional inputs.
Originality/value This study provides the first evidence of peer effects using classroom seating arrangements as an identification strategy in a developing country/rural community context. The paper demonstrates that optimizing peer proximity represents a cost-efficient policy instrument for human capital development in resource-constrained rural areas, offering important implications for educational policy in agricultural communities where traditional educational resources are limited.
Introduction: Longitudinal trends in breastfeeding (BF) are often overlooked in favor of binary or time-to-cessation measures. Characterizing these trends can inform promotion of sustained BF practices. We identified distinct BF profiles among participants of a maternal and child health program.
Methods: The Healthy Future program consisted of community health workers delivering a BF curriculum to mothers through monthly home visits. The program was evaluated in rural Sichuan, China with a cluster-randomized controlled trial (assigned to program versus not). We clustered 6-month postpartum trends (n = 949) of maternal-reported infant feeding using dynamic time warping. For each month, participants were categorized as either exclusive breastfeeding (EBF), mixed feeding (MF, feeding breastmilk plus other foods or liquids), or not breastfeeding (NBF). After identifying clusters, we regressed BF profiles on intervention assignment using adjusted multinomial logistic regression.
Results: Cluster analysis revealed seven profiles: always EBF, always MF, never breastfed, EBF until the 5th month, MF until the 5th month, mostly EBF, and NBF from the 3rd month. The intervention was associated with improved odds of always EBF (ROR = 2.61, 95% CI 1.25, 5.42), MF until the 5th month (ROR = 2.52, 95% CI 1.18, 5.39), and NBF from the 3rd month (ROR = 2.82, 95% CI 1.16, 6.87) compared to being never breastfed. Mothers in the never breastfed cluster had the lowest age, education, BF knowledge and attitudes, and decision-making power.
Discussion: Cluster analyses found the intervention significantly improved EBF, particularly in mothers characterized by higher baseline educational attainment and BF knowledge. Targeted efforts are needed to help mothers initiate EBF from birth and continue EBF through month 6.
Background Mental health problems among young children have become a common public health issue worldwide. As the family plays a crucial role in creating a favorable environment for children’s mental health, the parenting style of caregivers is a key factor related to children’s mental health issues. This study aims to examine the associations between parenting styles of primary caregivers and the mental health of their primary school child in rural China and identifies the factors that may influence the adoption of different parenting styles.
Methods Data were collected from 1,298 primary school children (aged 9–11) and their primary caregivers in northwestern China. The primary caregivers completed the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, and a socio-demographic questionnaire. The cognitive development of children was measured using the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Fourth Edition, and the non-cognitive development of children was evaluated using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social-Emotional. We performed descriptive statistics, linear regression analysis, and multivariable regression analysis.
Results Our data showed that 17% of the sampled children exhibited total difficulty problems. The results indicated that authoritative parenting style was negatively associated with child mental health problems. In contrast, authoritarian parenting style was positively associated with child mental health problems. Analysis of combined parenting styles revealed that the combinations that included relatively more intensive authoritative parenting styles was associated with reduced incidence of child mental health problems. In contrast, the combinations that were found to have relatively more authoritarian parenting styles were associated with higher rates of mental health issues among children. Demographic characteristics, such as child gender, child developmental outcomes, child attending preschools, identity of primary caregiver, and family economic status, that were associated with the adoption of different parenting styles.
Conclusions The study indicates that an authoritative parenting style is positively associated child mental health outcomes. Likewise, when authoritative strategies are more prominent within combined parenting styles, the likelihood that a child will experience mental health problems decreases. In contrast, the more dominant authoritarian behaviors are, the greater the risk of child mental health problems. Therefore, primary caregivers should be encouraged to adopt more positive parenting styles, which can help promote better outcomes of child mental health.
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